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| 2. Portugal |
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(See 1640, Dec. 1)| Monarchs: John IV (1640–56), Afonso VI (1656–83), Peter II (1683–1706), John V (1706–50), Joseph I (1750–77), Maria I (1777–1816). | 1 |
| The Thirty Years' War, Spain's economic problems, and revolts in the Netherlands and Catalonia enabled Portugal to gain its independence (See 1668, Feb. 13) even though it lacked a strong modern army. King John faced financial difficulties and problems of recognition. France and England recognized him immediately, but the papacy refused to recognize Portuguese independence, so when peace was finally reached, the vast majority of Portuguese dioceses had no prelate. John fought the wars of independence with money borrowed from Jews within Portugal and so granted “new Christians” some privileges. | 2 |
| DEMOGRAPHY. Population remained steady during the second half of the 17th century but increased dramatically after about 1730. | 3 |
| ECONOMY. The Portuguese government depended on Brazil for most of its income, so colonial trade remained key to the economy. Portugal also relied heavily on two major agricultural products, wine and olive oil—demand for both of which increased following 1648. This reliance meant a decline in grain production and grain scarcity in Portugal. In industry, Portugal regulated manufactures, adhering to mercantilist policies. However, manufacturing fared poorly because Portuguese products could not compete with superior-quality imports. As a result, Portugal sustained a permanent trade deficit between 1648 and 1814. | 4 |
| CULTURE. The Portuguese Enlightenment was largely the creation of Portuguese who had resided abroad and who brought back foreign ideas upon their return to Portugal. Marquis de Pombal dominated political theory, along with Luis da Cunha's Political Testament. Father Luis António in education with his True Method of Study (1746). Gomes Freire supported the French Revolution in his late-18th-century writings. In literature and the arts, Antonio José da Silva (1705–39), Manuel Bocage (1765–1805), Filinto Elísio (1734–1819), Cruz e Silva (1731–99), Correia Garçáo (1724–72). | 5 |
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| 1649–59 |
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| Immunity granted to the property of new Christians sentenced by the Inquisition. | 6 |
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| 1654 |
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| The Dutch were finally driven from Brazil, where they had established themselves during the Spanish period. | 7 |
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| 1656–67 |
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| AFONSO VI, whose mother, Luisa María de Guzmán, served as regent during the first period of his reign. Hostilities with Spain reopened. The Spaniards defeated at Elvas (Jan. 14, 1659) and the Battle of Ameixal (June 8, 1663). | 8 |
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| 1662 |
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| Charles II of England married Catherine, the daughter of John IV. | 9 |
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| 1662 |
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| A palace coup placed Afonso on the throne, eliminating Queen-Mother Luisa's regency and resulting in appointment of Count of Castelo Melhor as prime minister. | 10 |
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| 1665 |
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| The battle of Montes Claros effectively ended the war with Spain. | 11 |
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| 1667 |
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| Castelo Melhor signed an alliance with France because he believed England was not negotiating for the best possible peace with Spain. | 12 |
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| 1667 |
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| Peter (Pedro), the brother of Afonso, led a second coup, forced Castelo Melhor's dismissal, and imprisoned the king. He set himself up as regent and exiled Afonso to the Azores (d. 1683). | 13 |
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| 1668 |
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| Peter married Afonso's wife, Mlle. d'Aumale, after exposing his brother's impotence. | 14 |
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| Feb. 13 |
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| Conclusion of peace with Spain (Treaty of Lisbon). Spain recognized Portuguese independence. | 15 |
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