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| 2. The Kingdom of Italy |
| 1871, May 13 |
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| The LAW OF GUARANTIES defined relations between the Italian government and the papacy. It granted the pope royal honors and prerogatives and full liberty in the exercise of his religious functions; representatives of foreign powers at the Vatican received diplomatic rights and immunities; the pope received an annual income of 3.25 million lire from the Italian treasury and full enjoyment of the Vatican and other palaces with rights of extraterritoriality. Pius IX did not accept this law and posed as the prisoner of the Vatican. | 1 |
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| 1873–76 |
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| Ministry of Marco Minghetti, in which Quintino Sella, minister of finance, exercised “economy to the bone” in an effort to balance the budget. The government reorganized the army and recreated the navy. | 2 |
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| 1876, March 28 |
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| First ministry of the Left under Agostino Depretis. He reduced Parliament by corruption and political alliances (transformismo) and defeated the Right in elections through government pressure. Depretis followed the policy of agitation against Austria (irrendentism) aimed at acquiring the Trentino and Trieste—Italian-speaking regions still under Austrian rule. | 3 |
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| 1877 |
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| An act made elementary education compulsory for children from 6 to 9 years of age, but it was poorly enforced. | 4 |
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| 1878–1903 |
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| POPE LEO XIII, more liberal than Pius IX, encouraged the renewed study of St. Thomas Aquinas in all Catholic seminaries, which spread the doctrine that no conflict existed between true science and true religion. Leo also fostered the study of church history to increase the prestige of the church by demonstrating its contributions to the progress of Western civilization. He supported experimental science among eminent Catholics. Leo sought collaboration between church and state. | 5 |
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| 1878, Jan 9 |
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| Death of King Victor Emmanuel. | 6 |
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| 1878–1900 |
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| UMBERTO I. | 7 |
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| 1881 |
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| Extension of the franchise (for males only). The age limit was lowered from 25 to 21 and the tax-paying requirement from 40 to 19 lire. | 8 |
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| 1885 |
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| The management of state railways was delegated to three private companies for 60 years, with possible termination at the end of 20 or 40 years. Employers' liability for accidents also was introduced but was poorly administered. | 9 |
| Italian occupation of Assab and Massowa on the Red Sea. | 10 |
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| 1887, July 29 |
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| Death of Depretis. | 11 |
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| 1887–91 |
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| First ministry of Francesco Crispi, who adopted an anticlerical policy after abortive negotiations with the papacy. He abolished ecclesiastical tithes and compulsory religious instruction in elementary schools. Crispi also suppressed radical and irredentist organizations. | 12 |
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