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| 1853–56 |
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| CRIMEAN WAR (See 1853–56). The war went very badly for Russia, but all sides saw massive casualties. On March 30, 1856, the Treaty of Paris forced Russia to accept the demilitarization and neutralization of the Black Sea, ensuring British dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. The Russians also renounced claims to a protectorate of all Balkan Christians. In the Balkans, Moldavia acquired southern Bessarabia, cutting Russia's access to the Danube (where an international commission was established to ensure safe navigation), and a collective great powers guarantee of Serbia and the Danubian Principalities replaced a Russian protectorate. Britain thwarted French desires to revise the situation of Italy and Poland. The Ottoman Empire was also admitted to the European concert, while Britain, France, and Austria agreed by formal treaty (April 15) to protect Ottoman independence. Finally, the participants adopted four rules of international law: (1) privateering remained abolished; (2) the neutral flag covered enemy goods, except contraband; (3) neutral goods, except contraband, were not liable to capture under an enemy flag; (4) blockade, to be binding, had to be effective. More generally, the impact of the Crimean War increased British and Russian hesitation to commit further to European affairs. This left France the dominant power, as Austria strove to retain its Italian possessions and Prussia sought to resolve internal problems on the route to German unification. | 1 |
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| 1858–70 |
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| WARS OF ITALIAN UNIFICATION (See 1858, July 20). | 2 |
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| 1860–63 |
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| Britain, France and Belgium signed a series of commercial treaties ushering in a period of free trade (See Jan). | 3 |
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| 1861, Oct. 13 |
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| Britain, France, and Spain signed the Convention of London to force the new revolutionary government in Mexico to fulfill the previous regime's obligations. All three landed troops in December, but Spain and Britain withdrew as Napoleon III's more grandiose schemes to establish a Catholic Latin empire became clear (April 1862). The French attempt to install Archduke Maximilian as emperor failed by 1867 (See 1864, April 10). | 4 |
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| 1863 |
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| Representatives from 26 nations signed the Geneva conventions, pledging to obey humanitarian rules in time of war and recognizing the neutrality of the Red Cross. | 5 |
| Napoleon III's efforts to intervene against Russia in the Second Polish Revolution (See 1863–64) broke down due to the lukewarm attitudes of the British and the Austrians, and Prussia's support of Russia. Prussia sent four corps (half the army) to the Polish frontier. This resulted in the tsar's support of Prussia during the three wars necessary to German unification. | 6 |
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| 1863–70 |
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| WARS OF GERMAN UNIFICATION. | 7 |
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| 1863, Aug |
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| A congress of princes, summoned by Emperor Francis Joseph to reform the Germanic Confederation (See 1850, Nov. 29), but really meant as a bait to German liberalism, miscarried when Bismarck induced King William to refuse to attend. Bismarck's next opportunity to attain German unification under Prussia came in connection with the highly complicated Schleswig-Holstein question. A royal proclamation of King Frederick VII of Denmark (March 30, 1863) (See 1863) in substance announced the annexation to Denmark of the duchy of Schleswig. This act was a breach of the London Protocol (1852) by which the powers had guaranteed at once the inseparability of the duchies and their personal union with Denmark under the king, and also of the engagement given by Denmark to Austria and Prussia (Dec. 1851) not to incorporate Schleswig or treat it separately. Frederick's act also thrust a new charter on the duchy of Holstein (which retained its autonomy) without consulting its representatives. This flew in the face of the Germanic Confederation, of which Holstein was a member. Expectation of British and Swedish support was an important factor in shaping Danish policy during 1863 and early 1864. | 8 |
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| 1864, Jan. 16 |
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| Austria joined Prussia in an alliance, and the two powers agreed to send an ultimatum to Denmark demanding repeal of the constitution (otherwise they would invade), to settle the future course of the duchies only “by mutual agreement.” | 9 |
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| Feb. 1 |
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| Austrian and Prussian troops invaded Schleswig, resulting in war with Denmark (See 1864, Jan. 16) (See 1863). | 10 |
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| April 25–June |
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| The London Conference, engineered by the British to save the Danes, failed. | 11 |
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| June 26 |
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| The war was renewed, resulted in a crushing defeat for the Danes and the surrender of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg to Austria and Prussia (definitive Peace of Vienna, Oct. 30). | 12 |
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| Aug. 14 |
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| In the convention of Gastein, Austria and Prussia agreed to joint sovereignty for the duchies, but Austria was to administer Holstein, Prussia to administer Schleswig (Lauenburg went to Prussia in return for a money payment to Austria). An impossible situation was created: Austrian Holstein became a virtual enclave in unfriendly Prussia. Under the skillful hand of Bismarck, Austro-Prussian relations rapidly deteriorated. | 13 |
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