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| 1850 |
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| The Russians established a settlement at the mouth of the Amur River. | 1 |
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| 1851 |
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| Opening of St. Petersburg–Moscow Railway, the first major rail link in Russia. | 2 |
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| 1853–56 |
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| The CRIMEAN WAR was the outcome of the dispute between Russia and France over the holy places in Palestine and of Russian claims to a protectorate over the Christians in the Ottoman Empire. By the Treaty of Paris (1856) Russia lost control of the Danube mouth and ceded to the Ottomans the southern part of Bessarabia (See 1853–56). Russia was obliged to accept neutralization of the Black Sea and to agree to build no fortifications and to keep no navy in that sea. | 3 |
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| 1858–60 |
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| Advance of Russia in the Far East. By the Treaty of Aigun (1858) China ceded to Russia the left bank of the Amur River, and by the Treaty of Peking, the Ussuri region (See Major Land-Based Empires). Foundation of Vladivostok (1860). | 4 |
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| 1860 |
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| Alexander II began his efforts at reform by introducing rural courts. Other reforms included the creation of a single state treasury, the publication of the annual budget, and the creation of a state bank to centralize credit and finance. | 5 |
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| 1861, March 3 |
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| The EMANCIPATION EDICT liberated the serfs. The subject had been discussed for years by a special committee, which collected huge masses of material from provincial bodies. Temporary freedom of discussion in the press had also produced much information and different viewpoints. The landowners were, on the whole, ready to give the serfs freedom, but not ready to give up much of their land. At the other extreme were the radicals and socialists, who insisted that the land belonged to those who worked it. The final solution was a compromise imposed by the tsar. | 6 |
| Terms: All serfs were given personal freedom, together with allotments of land for which the owners were paid by the state in treasury bonds. The peasants in turn were to refund the treasury by installments (redemption payments) spread over a period of 49 years. The land was not given to individuals, but to the village communes (mir), which distributed it among the village members according to the size of each peasant family. To ensure equality of treatment, the land was to be redistributed in many communes every 10 or 12 years. The members of the commune were held jointly responsible for the redemption payments. In addition to receiving redemption payments, aristocratic landlords retained some of the best land. | 7 |
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| 1861–62 |
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| Peasant uprisings, student disturbances, and an unexplained rash of fires in St. Petersburg indicated that discontent remained. | 8 |
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| 1862 |
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| The provincial assembly of the Tver gentry, led by Alexis Unkovsky, renounced its gentry privileges and demanded the convocation of a constituent assembly representing the entire people, to establish a new order in Russia. | 9 |
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| 1864 |
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| The ZEMSTVO LAW was one of the most important features of the great reforms. The law established a system of local self-government: the nobility, the townspeople, and the peasants were represented (no one class to have a majority of seats) on local boards (zemstvos) and were empowered to levy taxes for local economic and cultural requirements (roads, bridges, schools, hospitals, and so on). | 10 |
| Reforms of the judiciary. The old system of class courts was abolished, and a new hierarchy of courts, on the French model, was set up, with thoroughly modernized procedure and jury trial for criminal offenses. Justices of the peace were provided to deal with minor civil suits, and the old peasant courts were retained for those who wished to use them. | 11 |
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| 1866 |
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| A first attempt on Alexander's life was made. | 12 |
| The Moscow Conservatory was founded. | 13 |
| The appointment of Count Dmitri Tolstoy as minister of education began a gradual process of stricter control. | 14 |
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| 1867 |
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| Sale of Alaska to the United States, more than 20 years after Russian settlements in California were abandoned (1844). | 15 |
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| 1865–81 |
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| Russia advanced in central Asia (See Major Land-Based Empires). The conquests of the khanates of Kokand, Bokhara, and Khiva were followed by the annexation of the entire Transcaspian region in 1881. This aggressive policy created much friction between Russia and Britain, which was fearful for India. | 16 |
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