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| 2. Foreign Invasion and Internal Disarray |
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| The military problems caused by the emergence of an aggressive Persian (Sassanian) kingdom on Rome's eastern borders (See 230–243) and the continuing pressure of northern tribes on the Danube and Rhine frontiers increased during the rest of the 3rd century. In the mid-third century a coalition of German tribes on the middle and lower Rhine, the Franks, began invading Gaul and Spain (See 253–260). The Goths started to raid Asia Minor and the Balkans c. 238 and later split into the Visigoths, who entered the Empire along the central Danube in the 4th century, and the Ostrogoths, who acquired an empire in the Ukraine and later entered Italy under Theodoric the Great. The Vandals first appeared on the central Danube c. 270. In the early 4th century they overran Gaul and Spain and in 428 invaded Africa. The nomadic Huns drove the Ostrogoths from the Ukraine c. 370 and in the 5th century advanced into central Europe and the Empire. | 1 |
| On the death of Severus Alexander, the internal stability of the Empire evaporated, and no emperor was able to secure the loyalty of the armies for long. Of those who ruled from 235 to 284, one died in battle, one was captured by the enemy, and one died of plague—all others either died in civil wars or were assassinated. The power of the armies and the predominantly military function of the imperial government dictated that 3rd-century emperors would be military men drawn primarily from the martial Danubian provinces. The combination of foreign wars and internal disorder caused an economic crisis. The imperial government was bankrupt, the currency was debased until it was worthless, and inflation was rampant. Trade declined and taxes were paid in kind. Agriculture was in disarray. In the war-torn border provinces, land went out of cultivation. The resultant demands placed on peasants in more peaceful areas became intolerable, causing many to flee the land or revolt. The threat of war caused cities, including Rome, to be fortified with large walls. Pressure to meet the ever-increasing imperial taxes and to maintain the civic institutions of their own communities drove the urban elite into ruin and led to the decline of cities. Population declined as a result of epidemics and economic decline. The extent of depopulation is disputed, however, and varied greatly by region. | 2 |
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| 235–238 |
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| Gaius Julius Verus MAXIMINUS “Thrax,” a Thracian peasant noted for his great size and strength, who had risen from the ranks under Septimius, was proclaimed emperor by the Rhine legions after the murder of Alexander. Maximinus beat back the threats of Sarmatians, Dacians, and Goths but was opposed by the senate. In Africa, the legions proclaimed as emperors the 80-year-old proconsul M. Antonius Gordianus and his son Gordianus II (238). Both perished in a war with the prefect of Mauretania who supported Maximinus. In Rome the senate raised from their own numbers M. Clodius Pupienus and D. Caelius Calvinus Balbinus. Maximinus was slain by his own troops while besieging Aquileia (June 238). The praetorian guard murdered Pupienus and Balbinus, and forced the senate to recognize the thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordianus, Gordianus III, as emperor. | 3 |
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| 238–244 |
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| Marcus Antonius GORDIANUS III (b. 225) was dominated by the praetorian prefect C. Furius Timesitheus, whose daughter he married (241). Timesitheus drove the Persian king Shapur (Sapor) out of Carrhae (242–243) but died of disease. The new praetorian prefect made himself co-Augustus, then murdered Gordianus (early in 244). | 4 |
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| 244–249 |
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| Marcus Julius PHILIPPUS “the Arab” bought peace with the Persians, won victories in Germany and Dacia, and, at Rome, celebrated the ludi saeculares for Rome's thousandth birthday (248). He was killed at Verona (249) in battle against his commander in Dacia, Decius. | 5 |
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| 249–251 |
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| Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus DECIUS (b. 200?) instituted the first general persecution of the Christians and perhaps of all who would not sacrifice to the emperor. The entire Roman field army was wiped out, and Decius was slain (the first emperor killed in battle) by the Goths in 251. | 6 |
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| 251–253 |
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| Gaius Vibius Trebonianus GALLUS (b. c. 207) was proclaimed emperor by the army of Moesia. In his reign began a 15-year plague. When he marched against his successor in Moesia, the Moor M. Aemilius Aemilianus, his own troops slew him (before Oct. 253). | 7 |
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| 253 |
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| Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus, emperor, was proclaimed emperor, then murdered, by his own troops. | 8 |
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| 253–260 |
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| Publius Licinius VALERIANUS (b. c. 193), commander in Raetia, became emperor, with his son Gallienus as co-Augustus; they divided the Empire, east and west. Gallienus fought unsuccessfully against the Franks, who crossed the Rhine in 256; the Alamanni, who reached Milan; and the Goths. As the frontiers ceased to hold, cities within the Empire began to build walls. In the east, Valerian campaigned against Shapur (256–259) but was captured and died in captivity. | 9 |
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| 259–268 |
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| Publius Licinius Egnatius GALLIENUS (b. 218) continued to reign alone, though pretenders appeared throughout the Empire and the period has been called that of the “thirty tyrants” (nine are attested). He completed the substitution of equestrians for senators as legionary commanders and as governors. | 10 |
| The Goths, who had broken through to the Black Sea, harried Asia and the Aegean area from ships. | 11 |
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| 258–267 |
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| Odenathus, ruler of Palmyra in the Syrian desert, kept the Persians out of Asia (260). His queen and successor, Zenobia, declared her independence (267). | 12 |
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| 259–268 |
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| Postumus set himself up as emperor in Gaul. Gallienus was murdered by his own troops before Mediolanum (Milan), where he was besieging the pretender Aureolus (before Sept., 268). Aureolus in his turn was slain by Claudius II. | 13 |
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| 268–270 |
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| Marcus Aurelius CLAUDIUS II “Gothicus” (b. ?) was the first of a series of capable Illyrian emperors who prepared the way for Diocletian. He repelled a Gothic invasion of the Balkans (269, whence his title) at Naissus (Nisch) and settled numbers of Goths in the vacant lands of the Danubian provinces. Upon his death from plague, his brother Quintillus was proclaimed as emperor. | 14 |
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