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| 1835–37 |
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| MUSTAFA BEY. He attempted to maintain ties to Istanbul. While refusing to pay tribute to the Ottomans, he sent troops during their reoccupation of Libya (May 1835) and was ready to recognize Ottoman sovereignty before being dissuaded by his son and heir, Ahmad. | 1 |
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| 1837 |
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| A government attempt to impose military conscription in Tunis was abandoned following civil unrest. | 2 |
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| 1837–55 |
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| AHMAD I (AHMAD BEY). The most active and innovative ruler of the 19th century, Ahmad Bey attempted to strengthen Tunisian society against European encroachment through a series of reforms often modeled on French precedent. His programs relied on good relations with the ulama and tribal chiefs, who were offered various appointments and gifts. He increased Tunisian participation in high government office, but his military reforms necessitated a new tax on agriculture and state monopolies on tobacco, salt, and leather. | 3 |
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| 1837–47 |
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| Beginning of the modernization of the army. Ahmad Bey's ambitious plans involved the creation of nizami (modern) cavalry and artillery regiments garbed in European-style uniforms. He hired French army officers to oversee the training of the troops. | 4 |
| By 1847, 16,000 men were in uniform. The expense of this undertaking forced Ahmad Bey to radically reduce troop strength in 1853 to avoid bankruptcy. | 5 |
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| 1838 |
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| Textile mill founded at Tebourba, as part of Ahmad Bey's attempt to start a series of industries to supply his new army. The water-powered mill opened in 1844, with Tunisian workers instructed by French foremen, but ultimately it failed. | 6 |
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| 1840, March |
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| Establishment of the Bardo Military School. Designed to prepare graduates for employment in the army and administration, the school provided six to nine years of modern training directed by European officers. The school was closed during the reign of Muhammad al-Sadiq (1859–82) for lack of funding. | 7 |
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| 1841–46 |
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| Abolition of slavery. Under pressure from Europe, Ahmad Bey closed the slave market in Tunis (1841), declared all the children of slaves to be free (1842), and finally announced the liberation of all slaves (1846). | 8 |
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| 1843–44 |
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| War scare with Sardinia, caused by a dispute about the delivery of Tunisian grain exports halted during the failed harvest of 1843. The bey was forced to come to terms with Sardinia rather than risk war and an international incident involving Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire. | 9 |
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| 1846, Nov.–Dec |
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| State visit of Ahmad Bey to France. Ahmad Bey hoped the trip might gain French support for him at a time when the Ottomans threatened to reincorporate Tunisia into their empire. French civilization deeply impressed him and spurred his attempts at modernization. | 10 |
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| 1847, July |
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| Creation of a state bank in an effort to establish control over money and foreign trade. The bey granted his prominent but corrupt adviser Mahmud ibn Ayad the right to issue paper money and the concession to mint silver coins. Ibn Ayad used the opportunity for self-aggrandizement and in 1852 fled to France after driving the state to near bankruptcy. The bank defaulted in May 1853. | 11 |
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| 1849 |
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| Death of Ibrahim al-Riyahi, a member of the ulama and a poet. He served as head of the Zaytuna mosque and chief jurisconsult (mufti), and undertook diplomatic missions to Morocco (1803) and the Ottoman sultan (1838) for the beys. He was pivotal in popularizing the new Tijaniyya Sufi order in Tunis. The order, founded by Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1815) in Fez, gained many followers among government officials and became known for its support of the ruling establishment, even during the French occupation. | 12 |
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| c. 1850 |
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| The guild that produced the shashiyya (fez) was ruined when cheaper copies made in Marseilles undercut markets in the Ottoman Empire. The demise of the prestigious guild reflected the hazards of Tunisia's integration into the European commercial sphere. | 13 |
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