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| 1378–1417 |
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| This led to the GREAT SCHISM, in which the papacy was divided and dishonored. Thirteen cardinals met at Anagni. | 1 |
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| 1378–94 |
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They elected CLEMENT VII, thus dividing western Christendom into obediences:| The Roman Line | | The Avignonese Line | | Urban VI | | Clement VII | | (1378–89) | | (1378–94) | | Boniface IX | | Benedict XIII | | (1389–1404) | | (1394–1423) | | Innocent VII | | (1404–6) | | Gregory XII | | (1406–15) |
Allegiance to the rivals was determined partly by political considerations, but often was settled after careful study of the claims of each and consultation with the clergy (e.g., King Charles V of France, John of Castile); England's decision was based largely on hostility to France; Scotland's on its hostility to England; in Naples and Sicily the rulers and their subjects took opposite positions. | 2 |
| Emergence of the conciliar movement. The basic ideas were inherent in the works of such writers as Marsiglio of Padua; specific arguments that a general council is superior to a pope, can be called by a king, and is competent to judge a pope or call a new conclave, were advanced in 1379 (Henry of Langenstein) and from then on grew in importance. Two Roman popes were elected with the understanding that they would resign if Benedict XIII would also do so. The two colleges of cardinals joined in a call for a general council to meet at Pisa, 1409. | 3 |
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| 1409 |
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| The Council of Pisa, attended by 500 prelates and delegates from the states of Europe. Two parties: (1) a moderate majority with the sole aim of ending the schism; (2) radical reformers (including d'Ailly and Gerson from Paris), who were compelled to accept postponement of reform until a council supposed to meet in 1412. After hearing specific charges against both popes, the council deposed both. The conclave chose Alexander V (d. 1410). Neither the Roman nor the Avignonese pope resigned, and the schism became a triple one. | 4 |
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| 1410–15 |
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| JOHN XXIII, expelled from Rome by Ladislas of Naples, was forced by the Emperor Sigismund to issue a call for the Council of Constance (1414) in return for protection. This marked the passing of the initiative in reform from the king of France to the Roman emperor, a return in theory to the days of the Ottos. | 5 |
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| 1414–17 |
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| The Council of Constance: one of the greatest assemblies of medieval history; three aims: (1) restoration of unity to the Church; (2) reform in head and members; (3) extirpation of heresy, particularly the Hussite heresy (See 1378–1419). Following university practice, voting was by nations, and the numbers of the Italian prelates did no good to Pope John. John, seeing a chance to divide the council and the emperor, allowed the imprisonment of Hus (in violation of the imperial safe conduct). | 6 |
| Hus, heard three times by the whole council (and cleverly induced to expand his doctrine that sin vitiates a clerical office to include civil office as well), lost Sigismund's support, was condemned, and was executed (1415) as was his companion, Jerome of Prague (1416). | 7 |
| John XXIII, having agreed to resign if his rivals did so, fled the council and was brought back, tried, and deposed (1415); Gregory XII resigned (1415); Sigismund, unable to induce Benedict XIII to resign, won away his supporters and isolated him. Reform was again postponed, but two decrees are significant: Sacrosancta (1415), asserting that a council is superior to a pope; and Frequens (1417), providing for stated meetings of general councils. | 8 |
| The conclave elected Cardinal Colonna as Martin V. Christendom ignored the obstinate Benedict, and the schism was over. The schism badly weakened the prestige of the papacy and the ordinary Christian's respect for papal authority; it also exposed the need for general ecclesiastical reform. | 9 |
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| 1417–31 |
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| Martin V, a Roman of Romans, dissolved the Council of Constance. In response to the decree Frequens, which required the summoning of regular general councils of the Church, he convened the Council of Pavia-Siena (1424–25), but he refused to attend and encouraged divisions among the representatives. Its failure led to new calls for a council, and Martin was forced to summon the assembly at Basel, but died before it met. Recovery of the Papal States: most of the cities were under their own lords, who bore pro forma titles as papal vicars but were in fact independent. Concentration on Italian political problems at the expense of the universal spiritual interests of Christendom. | 10 |
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| 1431–47 |
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| EUGENE IV, a Venetian who favored summoning the council of Basel. | 11 |
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| 1431–49 |
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| The Council of Basel, dominated by strong antipapal feeling. Dissolved by Eugene because of negotiations with the Hussites, the council ignored the order and decreed (with the support of the princes) that no general council could be dissolved without its consent; it continued in session and summoned Eugene and the cardinals to attend. Eugene ignored the summons but was forced (1433) to accept the council. Temporary compromise with the Hussites registered in the Compactata. Reforms voted: abolition of commendations, reservations, appeals to Rome, annates, etc.; provision for regular provincial and diocesan synods; confirmation of the right of chapter elections; appeal from a general council to a pope pronounced heresy. Already divided over these reforms, the council split over reunion with the Greek church. Eugene and his cardinals ignored a second summons, were pronounced contumacious; Eugene dissolved the council and called another to meet at Ferrara; his supporters left Basel. The rump council continued to meet, deposed Eugene (1439), and elected Amadeus of Savoy. | 12 |
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| 1439–49 |
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| FELIX V (Amadeus of Savoy). Moved to Laussanne, the council continued with dwindling numbers and prestige. | 13 |
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| 1438–45 |
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| The Council of Ferrara-Florence (under the presidency of Eugene). After months of futile discussion (over the filioque question, unleavened bread at the sacrament, purgatory, and papal supremacy), the Greeks were forced to accept the Roman formula for union (1439) and the schism between East and West, dating from 1054, was technically healed. As the Greeks at home repudiated the union, it was of no effect. Isidore of Kiev and Bessarion remained as cardinals of the Roman Church. The long residence of Greek scholars in Florence contributed to the development of Italian humanistic studies. | 14 |
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| 1438 |
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| Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges. An announcement made by the French clergy under the aegis of Charles VII was the first assertion by a local church of the right to organize itself. It affirmed the supremacy of a general council (as opposed to the papacy) over the Church, and gave the crown control over Church appointments (thereby preparing for the efficient extortion of ecclesiastical revenues by the monarchy) and over papal letters and judicial appeals. | 15 |
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| 1439 |
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| The diet of Mainz accepted the Pragmatic Sanction of Mainz, abolishing annates and papal provisions, and providing for diocesan and provincial synods. | 16 |
| Enea Silvio de'Piccolomini, sent to win Germany back for the papacy, came to an agreement with Emperor Frederick III on such cynical terms that the German princes flocked to Felix V, but a provisional concordat, embodying the Pragmatic of 1439, enabled Enea Silvio to detach the princes one by one. | 17 |
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