| |
| 1959–60 |
| |
| In 1959, Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal and Modibo Keita of French Sudan sought to merge their two countries into what became known as the Mali Federation, in an effort to increase their region's political and economic power. In Aug. 1960, France granted independence to the Mali Federation. But Senghor became increasingly wary of Sudanese interference in Senegalese politics, and the federation collapsed in Dec. 1960. French Sudan then changed its name to Mali and closed its border with Senegal, leaving it landlocked. | 1 |
| |
| 1960 |
| |
| France granted independence to all its West African colonies, including Cameroon, Dahomey, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Togo, and Upper Volta. All joined the UN as full members. The advent of political independence in French West Africa, however, did not mean that the ex-colonies had achieved real economic independence. | 2 |
| Nigerian independence was achieved more through negotiation than mass mobilization. The Africans to whom power was transferred inherited a deeply divided country. These divisions—including north versus south, Muslim versus Christian, Yoruba versus Igbo, educated versus uneducated—would severely challenge the Nigerian state in the years to come. | 3 |
| |
| 1960–93 |
| |
| Sub-Saharan Africa witnessed rapid urbanization. Africans began migrating to the cities in increasing numbers after World War II. During the first 15 years of independence, urbanization proceeded at an even faster pace. The population influx placed great strains on housing, health, and infrastructure in African cities and towns. Unfortunately, the urban expansion was not accompanied by similar economic growth, and unemployment in the cities skyrocketed. Without sufficient job opportunities in the formal sector, many Africans became part of an urban underclass. | 4 |
| |
| 1969–74 |
| |
| Six years of insufficient rainfall in the Sahel led to a drought that devastated agricultural production in Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Upper Volta. Food shortages took a heavy toll on livestock and civilian populations and increased an already high rate of urbanization. In many West African nations, the drought aggravated economic problems that had been developing since independence. | 5 |
| |
| 1960s–1970s |
| |
| Expansion of national culture through radio and television. Radio and television spread to the African masses in this era, symbolizing the increased penetration of international cultures into the continent. Those Africans who sought to use the communications media to develop a uniquely African popular culture faced heavy competition from foreign influences. | 6 |
| Pan-African festivals were held to develop cultural awareness and exchange. Dakar hosted a conference on African literature in 1963 and an arts festival in 1966, thus celebrating the culture of black Africa and the African diaspora. Lagos hosted an African arts festival of its own in 1977. UNESCO organized a conference on the influence of colonialism on African cultures, held at Dar es Salaam in 1972. Two years later, the Tanzanian capital hosted the 6th Pan-African Congress. | 7 |
| |
| 1970s–The Present |
| |
| Impact of liberalization and structural adjustment on African economies and the influence of the World Bank. By the late 1970s, African countries faced shortages of hard currency because of balance-of-payment deficits. The World Bank agreed to make funding available on the condition that African countries adjusted the structure of their economies. These adjustment programs, begun in the 1980s, often required recipient countries to ease price controls, reduce public expenditure and budget deficits, encourage private enterprise and investment, and liberalize trade and payment policies. Some, both in and outside of Africa, viewed the World Bank's measures as unwelcome intrusions on African economic autonomy. | 8 |
| |
| 1994 Ff |
| |
| The gradual and uneven trend of democratization continued in several countries, especially in the west and south. A number of countries, including Uganda and Botswana, also recorded industrial growth. | 9 |
| |
| Jan |
| |
| Under significant domestic pressure and scrutiny from the EEC, France negotiated a devaluation of the African franc (CFA), which it had artificially supported through bilateral banking agreements with members of the former French West African Federation. The devaluation of the CFA effectively doubled the external debt of former French West African nations and led to significant economic crises throughout the region. France agreed to bilateral negotiations with individual countries for debt relief, including the cancellation and rescheduling of debt. | 10 |
| |
| |
