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| 2. Muslim Spain |
| 711–15 |
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| The Muslim conquest (See 711). In 711 a mixed force of Arabs and Berbers, led by the Berber Tariq (whence Gibraltar, Gebel al-Tariq) crossed from Africa. Roderick, the last Visigothic king, was completely defeated in the battle on the Guadalete (Rio Barbate), whereupon his kingdom collapsed. The Muslims took Córdoba and the capital, Toledo. Tariq was followed (712) by his master, Musa, who took Medina Sidonia, Seville, Merida, and Saragossa. The Muslims soon reached the Pyrenees (719), having driven the remnants of the Christians into the mountains of the north and west. | 1 |
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| 732 |
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| At the battle of Tours the Muslims, having crossed into France, were defeated by Charles Martel and the Franks. (In Muslim annals, a minor skirmish.) By 759 they had been expelled from France. | 2 |
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| 756–1031 |
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| The Umayyad dynasty of Córdoba. | 3 |
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| 756–88 |
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| Abd al-Rahman I, grandson of the Umayyad caliph of Damascus who, when the triumphant Abbasids (See 749–54) ordered all princes of the Umayyad family killed, escaped (after many romantic adventures) to Spain, defeated the emir (Arabic title for governor of Córdoba), assumed the title, and founded an independent Muslim kingdom. Jews and Christians (dhimmis, or protected people, because they were people of the Book, the Old Testament Scriptures) were tolerated and well treated, but had to pay a special tax. Abd al-Rahman began construction of the great Mosque of Córdoba, considered by some architectural historians to be the most spectacular Islamic building in the world. Charlemagne's support for Muslim dissidents stimulated agitation against al-Rahman. | 4 |
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| 777 |
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| Invasion of Spain by Charlemagne, checked by the heroic defense of Saragossa. Annihilation of his rear guard by Basques at Roncesvalles (See 778). Wars with the Franks continued throughout the rest of the century, with Charlemagne ultimately conquering northeastern Spain as far as the Ebro River (capture of Barcelona, 801). | 5 |
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| 822–53 |
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| Abd ar-Rahman II, son of Al-Hakam. During his reign, Alfonso II of Leon invaded Aragon. He was defeated and his kingdom destroyed. The Franks too were driven back in Catalonia. The Normans first appeared on the coasts. In 837 a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo was suppressed, but Christian fanatics continued to be active, especially in Córdoba. | 6 |
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| 852–86 |
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| Muhammad I. He put down another Christian uprising in Córdoba, and carried on extensive operations against the Christian states of Leon, Galicia, and Navarre (Pampeluna taken 861). | 7 |
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| 912–61 |
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| Abd ar-Rahman III. The ablest and most gifted of the Umayyads of Spain, he assumed the titles of caliph and Amir al-Mu'minin in 929, thus asserting supremacy in Islam against the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Abd ar-Rahman's reign was marked by the pacification of the country, completion of governmental organization (centralization), and naval activity. In agricultural development, the Muslims introduced the cultivation of rice, sugarcane, oranges, lemons, grapefruits, eggplants, carrots, and, after the 11th century, cotton; these crops, together with new methods of field irrigation and crop rotation, led to “a green revolution” in Spain. | 8 |
| Córdoba, with a population of possibly 500,000 people, 1,600 mosques, 900 public baths, 80,455 shops, and a library with 400,000 volumes (the Swiss abbey of St. Gall at the same time had but 600 books) was so great a cultural and intellectual center that the Saxon nun Roswitha of Gandersheim described the city as “the ornament of the world.” Córdobans invented the process of manufacturing crystal and pioneered the making of paper (huge paper mills) using a technique learned from the Chinese. They brought the Indian game of chess to western Europe, and they made significant advances in chemistry, medicine and surgery, mathematics, and philosophy. | 9 |
| The old Visigothic aristocracy, by this time almost extinguished, was replaced by a rich middle class. Christians and Jews continued to enjoy wide toleration. | 10 |
| Abd ar-Rahman continued the wars with Leon and Navarre, which extended over most of his long reign. By the Peace of 955 with Ordono III of Leon, the independence of Leon and Navarre was recognized and the Muslim frontier withdrawn to the Ebro; on the other hand, Leon and Navarre recognized the suzerainty of the caliph and paid tribute. This peace was soon broken by Ordono's brother Sancho (957) who, after his defeat, was expelled by his subjects but restored by the caliph (959). | 11 |
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| 961–76 |
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| Al-Hakam al Mustansir continued the wars against Castile, Leon, and Navarre and forced their rulers to sue for peace (962–70). At the same time, he waged successful war against the Fatimid dynasty in Morocco, which was brought to an end (973) and replaced by the Umayyad power. | 12 |
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| 976–1009 |
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| Hisham II al Muayyad, whose reign marked the decline of the Umayyad dynasty. Power was seized by Muhammad ibn Abi'-Amir, with the title of Hajib al-Mansur (or Alamansor) the Victorious Chamberlain; he was a brilliant reforming minister (army and administration). He carried on successful campaigns against Leon, Navarre, Catalonia, and Mauretania, and temporarily checked the religious and racial separatism that later on brought about the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate. On his death in 1002 he was succeeded by his son, Abdulmalik al-Muzaffar (the Victorious), who several times defeated the Christians and was followed by his brother, Abd ar-Rahman, named Sanchol. The latter obliged Hisham and proclaimed him his heir, whereupon a revolt took place in Córdoba under the leadership of Muhammad, a member of the royal family. Hisham was compelled to abdicate in favor of Muhammad II al-Mahdi (1009–10), and Sanchol was executed. In the meantime the Berbers nominated Sulaiman al-Mustain as caliph (1009–10, 1013–16). Civil war ensued, reducing Spain to a score of petty kingships (taifas) and making easier the Christian reconquest. | 13 |
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| 1027–31 |
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| Hisham III, the last Umayyad caliph. | 14 |
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