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| 1291 |
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| Capture of Acre, the last Frankish stronghold in Syria. With the elimination of the Crusaders, the Mamluk Empire now held all of Egypt and Syria under its direct authority. | 1 |
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| 1328 |
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| Death of AHMAD IBN TAYMIYYA (b. 1263), one of the most renowned scholars of medieval Islam. He stirred up controversy among his contemporaries by demanding a more rigorous interpretation of Muslim religious sources (the Qur'an and hadith) and by publicly denouncing many practices associated with popular religion and Sufi ritual. His thinking made a deep imprint on the puritanical Wahhabi movement in 18th-century Arabia and on Muslim reformers, such as Rashid Rida, in modern times. | 2 |
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| 1347–49 |
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| THE BLACK DEATH (See 1347–50). In Egypt and Syria, about one-third of the population was wiped out by the plague. The decimation was particularly severe among the Mamluk households and may have been a factor in the political decline that later overtook the Mamluk Empire. During this epidemic and the succeeding ones in the 14th and 15th centuries, the Muslim religious establishment set an enduring precedent by adopting an attitude of pious resignation as the only proper response to outbreaks of the plague. Since nothing could be done to treat the victims, religious thinkers argued that it was better to carry on with everyday activities than to submit to paralyzing quarantines or to desert the cities and disrupt settled life. | 3 |
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| 1382–1517 |
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| The Circassian (also Burji) households of Mamluk rulers. Almost all the emirs of this period were Circassian in origin. They faced the difficult task of maintaining the power of the empire against an accelerating economic decline and slackening fiscal receipts. The most formidable rulers of these years were Barkuk (1382–99), al-Ashraf Barsbay (1422–38), Qayitbey (1468–96), and al-Ashraf Kansawh al-Ghawri (1501–16). | 4 |
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| 1400–1401 |
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| Invasion of Syria by TIMUR-I LANG (Tamerlane), the central Asian conquerer (See 1381–1405). His army sacked both Aleppo and Damascus and wreaked great devastation. Thousands of artisans and religious scholars were deported to Samarkand, the Timurid capital in central Asia, leaving the urban economy of Syria in a shambles. | 5 |
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| 1426 |
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| Punitive expedition to Cyprus. A Mamluk force raided the island, still in Christian possession, and captured its Frankish king, who had been sponsoring piratical attacks on Muslim shipping in the eastern Mediterranean. The king was released on condition that he recognize the Mamluk sultan as his overlord and pay an annual tribute. | 6 |
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| 1429 |
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| Establishment of the Mamluk monopoly on the pepper trade. The decree was symptomatic of Mamluk economic policy throughout the 15th century. In response to falling revenues, the state resorted to monopolies on lucrative commodities such as sugar, perfumes, and spices. The debasement of the currency was another drastic measure that the government proved all too ready to adopt. | 7 |
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| 1442 |
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| Death of Ahmad al-Maqrizi, one of the outstanding writers of the Mamluk period. He was a leading religious scholar and wrote extensively as a chronicler. Perhaps his best-known work is a massive and meticulous description of 15th-century Cairo. | 8 |
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| 1470 |
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| Death of Yusuf ibn Taghribirdi, one of the major chroniclers of 15th-century Egypt. He was descended from a prominent family of religious officials and, through his connections, gained an intimate knowledge of contemporary political affairs. | 9 |
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| 1516 |
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| OTTOMAN CONQUEST OF SYRIA. Ottoman forces annihilated the Mamluk army at the Battle of Marj Dabiq (Aug.), north of Aleppo. They quickly occupied the rest of Syria, which was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire. | 10 |
| In the Ottoman-Mamluk conflict, the Mamluks were severely hampered by their sneering disdain for firearms, which they refused to carry, regarding them as effeminate innovations. Unlike the Ottomans, they never fully made the transition to the gunpowder age and unwisely relegated their guns and cannons to inferior units. Consequently they paid a staggering price in battle, despite their celebrated valor and martial élan. | 11 |
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| 1517 |
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| OTTOMAN CONQUEST OF EGYPT, which became an Ottoman province. The Mamluk state ceased to exist. Egypt and Syria remained part of the Ottoman Empire until the 20th century. (See The Ottoman Empire) | 12 |
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