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| 2. Guatemala |
| 1840–65 |
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| Rafael Carrera (1814–65) ruled Guatemala. He reinstated ecclesiastical privileges, traditional judicial procedures, and merchant guilds, and abolished the head tax. Carrera's mestizo supporters dominated politics. Indians maintained their communal holdings. In 1848, liberal opponents drove Carrera to resign, but as chief of the army, he was powerful enough to drive liberals into exile. Carrera became president in 1854, backed by the church and the aristocracy. | 1 |
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| 1865–71 |
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| Vicente Cerna continued the conservative rule after Carrera's death. A liberal revolution, led by Justino Rufino Barrios (1835–85), deposed Cerna. | 2 |
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| 1871–85 |
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| Dictatorship of Justino Rufino Barrios. His regime promoted economic liberalism, abolishing the merchants' guild and disentailing church properties. Coffee exports tripled in these years. Not only big planters, but also ladino and white middling landowners, supported Barrios. The antivagrancy law of 1877 forced Indians to work on local coffee plantations when required. Many Indian communities lost their lands. In 1880, the population was 1,225,000. | 3 |
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| 1885 |
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| Barrios went to war to recreate the Central American Confederation. He was killed in battle. | 4 |
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| 1885–92 |
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| Manuel Lisandro Barillas, a civilian, assumed power at a time of economic crisis. Conservatives gained positions in the government. | 5 |
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| 1892–98 |
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| José María Reina Barrios was named president. He implemented further compulsory measures against rural workers. Large landowners increased their holdings. He was assassinated in 1898. | 6 |
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| 1898–1920 |
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| Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1857–1923) assumed dictatorial powers. He obtained support from German financiers and from U.S. interests linked to the United Fruit Company. A system of police surveillance bolstered Estrada's control of politics. Opposition to Cabrera coalesced around the church hierarchy. The earthquake of 1917, which destroyed Guatemala City, unleashed widespread resistance to his regime. (See Guatemala) | 7 |
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