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| 1858–66 |
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| IEMOCHI as shogun. Antiforeign sentiment continued unabated, and the desire for the restoration of the emperor's direct rule increased rapidly. | 1 |
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| 1859 |
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| Despite the fact that Kyoto informed Edo in February that foreigners were to be expelled as soon as possible, foreign merchants settled in Yokohama. Yokohama, Hakodate, and Nagasaki were opened as treaty ports. The Dutch abandoned Deshima and established a consulate in Edo. A series of attacks upon foreigners followed and resulted in foreign pressure upon Edo for redress. A silver-gold exchange rate of 5 to 1 led to an outflow of gold. | 2 |
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| Nov |
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Yoshida Sh in (b. 1830), a leading voice on behalf of the imperial institution from the domain of Chsh (western Honsh), was executed for anti-bakufu activities, claiming that the bakufu's inability to control the foreigners showed a lack of respect for the imperial institution. His teachings continued to influence the samurai of his native domain. He had earlier studied with Sakuma Shzan and was strongly influenced by the ethic of the Japanese warrior spirit. He had unsuccessfully tried to stow away with Perry's ships to the United States. | 3 |
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