| |
| 2. Autocracy, Revolution, and Dismemberment |
| 1876–1909 |
| |
| SULTAN ABDULHAMID II. Although the new sultan came to the throne promising to support constitutional government, the external and domestic crises early in his reign convinced him that only strong, centralized government could rescue the empire from collapse. In the space of a few years he put in place a system of autocratic rule with an almost unprecedented concentration of powers in his own hands. The grand vezirs, whose executive power had grown considerably in the previous half-century, were now reduced to instruments of the sultan's will. State policies were made in the Yildiz Palace by the sultan and a coterie of close associates, and carried out by an ever-growing bureaucracy backed by an elaborate system of internal security, surveillance, and censorship. | 1 |
| Another feature that distinguished the Hamidian regime from its 19th-century predecessors was its strong emphasis on Islam. PAN-ISLAMISM, as this policy is often called, served to rally citizens behind the sultan by presenting him as the chief protector of Muslims against threats by the infidels. The sultan assumed the title of caliph (spiritual leader of Muslims everywhere), using this new conception of the caliphate as a powerful diplomatic weapon against European powers that ruled over large Muslim populations, in particular, Russia, France, and Britain. The sultan himself led a life of religious observance and sober frugality, made money available for mosques and religious education, and patronized a circle of religious dignitaries in the court. | 2 |
| Abdulhamid left a highly unfavorable reputation, one of a brutal, paranoid despot who violated individual liberties and perpetrated massacres against the Armenians. More recent historical opinion has pointed to other sides of his legacy, including his accomplishment of many reforms and improvements during a difficult period when the empire was being rapidly dismembered by separatist movements from within and imperialist powers from without. | 3 |
| |
| 1876, Dec. 23 |
| |
| PROCLAMATION OF THE OTTOMAN CONSTITUTION. This document was drafted by a commission appointed by the sultan and chaired by the constitutionalist statesman Midhat Pasha (Oct. 7, 1876). In the course of its preparation Midhat was obliged to accept amendments by Abdulhamid that strengthened the sultan's powers, including the removal of clauses regarding ministerial responsibility. But despite considerable bargaining, all parties were eager for an agreement so that the constitution would be ready when the international conference on the Balkans met in Istanbul. The constitution provided for a bicameral Parliament and protections of various individual rights. The Parliament voted on laws and on the budget, but the sultan preserved most of his traditional powers: he was responsibleto no one for his actions, and it was he who appointed and dismissed ministers, convoked and dismissed Parliament, commanded the army, and signed treaties. | 4 |
| The constitution functioned for a short period only. Abdulhamid soon dismissed its chief architect, Midhat Pasha (Feb. 5, 1877) and dissolved the Parliament (Feb. 14, 1878). He ruled with the constitution suspended until forced to restore it by the Young Turk Revolution (July 1908). | 5 |
| |
| Dec. 23–1877, Jan. 20 |
| |
| The Istanbul international conference on the Balkan crisis (See Dec. 12). The European powers came up with proposals involving loss of territories by the Ottomans, reforms in the sultan's administration of his Balkan provinces, and international supervision of Ottoman performance. The Ottomans rejected the various demands, arguing repeatedly that their new constitution (whose declaration was timed to coincide with the opening of the conference) made talk of reforms unnecessary and the acceptance of restrictions on Ottoman sovereignty and territorial integrity unconstitutional. | 6 |
| |
| |
