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| 3. Austria-Hungary |
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| The dualistic system strengthened Emperor Francis Joseph's position in foreign policy but caused intense problems in domestic policies. It also left unresolved issues of national differences that undermined efforts at solidarity among parties and within social movements. | 1 |
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| a. Austria |
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| Ministers: Count Adolf Auersperg (Dec. 1867–Jan. 1870) represented German liberals and stressed anticlericalism. Count Karl Hohenwart (Feb.–Oct. 25, 1871) represented federalist groups and tried to achieve greater autonomy for the various nationalities. Count Hohenwart returned (Nov. 1871–78) and maintained power until the Liberals fell. Count Eduard Taaffe (Aug. 1879–Oct. 29, 1893) ruled with a coalition of Czechs, Poles, German Conservatives, and Clericals (Iron Ring). Count Casimir Badeni (Sept. 1895–97), a Polish landlord, followed. Ernst von Körber (Jan. 1900–Dec. 1904) governed by decree with a ministry of officials and was followed by numerous other ministries without parliamentary majorities. | 2 |
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| 1868, May 25 |
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| The May Laws established secular jurisdiction in marriage issues and the principle of secular control in education. | 3 |
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| 1869–70 |
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| Workers gained a limited right to strike and to organize in unions. | 4 |
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| 1870, July 30 |
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| The 1855 Concordat with the papacy was suspended in reply to the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility. | 5 |
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| 1871 |
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| Effort to establish a Bohemian and Austrian agreement similar to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise was rejected by the emperor. Hohenwart was forced to resign. | 6 |
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| 1873, March 10 |
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| Electoral reforms introduced direct election to the Parliament. | 7 |
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| March |
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| Stock market crash, caused by overconfidence and speculation, exposed corruption within the government. | 8 |
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