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| 1867, 1885, 1895 |
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| Das Kapital (three volumes) by Karl Marx, was an elaborate analysis of economic and social history and at the same time the basic exposition of “scientific” socialism. | 1 |
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| 1879 |
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| Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) established the first psychological laboratory. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936) discovered the “conditioned reflex” and induced “experimental neurosis” in dogs. | 2 |
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| 1883–88 |
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| Provocative and highly original works of cultural criticism were written by Friedrich von Nietzsche (1844–1900): Also sprach Zarathustra (1883); Jenseits von Gut und Böse (1886); Zur Genealogie der Moral (1887); Der Wille zur Macht (1888). Nietzsche denounced the morality of slaves and called for the utmost development of the individual, even at the cost of much suffering and sacrifice. His doctrine of the “superman” exerted tremendous influence in the early 20th century. | 3 |
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| 1886–90 |
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| The Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte of Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930) was the most outstanding of that scholar's many studies of Christian dogma and of the influence of Greek thought and religion on the development of Christianity. | 4 |
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| 1889–1914 |
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| The Second International Workingmen's Association held periodic meetings of representatives of the various national social democratic parties. It never had any central authority and at all times suffered from divergence of interest among its constituents. It was finally discredited by the patriotic participation of the socialist parties in World War I. | 5 |
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| 1890 |
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| Gabriel Tarde (1843–1904) published his Les lois de l'imitation, a pioneer work in the field of social psychology. At the same time Pierre Janet (1859–1949) carried on studies of hypnosis and hysteria. In 1895 Gustave Le Bon (1841–1931) published his Psychologie des foules. | 6 |
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| 1890 |
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| William James (1842–1910), the American psychologist, published his Principles of Psychology, to be followed by The Will to Believe (1897), The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902), and Pragmatism (1907). James's “pragmatism” viewed thinking and knowledge as aspects of the struggle to live. This school of thought went back to the American logician Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) and was espoused also by John Dewey (1859–1952) in How We Think (1909) and Democracy and Education (1916). In Europe the related “logical empiricists” included Pierre Duhem (1861–1916), Ernst Mach (1838–1916), and Henri Poincaré (1854–1912). | 7 |
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| 1897–1922 |
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| The philosophical writings of Henri Bergson (1859–1941) stressed intuition and irrational forces: Matière et mémoire (1897); Évolution créatrice (1906); Durée et simultanéité (1922). | 8 |
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| 1899 |
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| The revisionist or reformist current in social democracy was established by Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932) in his Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie, in which he queried Marx's predictions and advocated evolutionary, as distinguished from revolutionary, socialism. | 9 |
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| 1900 |
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| Traumdeutung, by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), marked the beginning of the theory of psychoanalysis. His other important works include Über Psychoanalyse (1910), Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse (1917), Das Ich und das Es (1923), Die Zukunft einer Illusion (1927), Das Unbehagen in der Kultur (1930), Neue Folge der Vorlesungen (1932). Among Freud's early adherents were Alfred Adler (1870–1937) and Carl G. Jung (1875–1964), both of whom broke away and established schools of their own. | 10 |
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| 1902 |
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| John A. Hobson (1858–1940) published Imperialism: A Study, undoubtedly the most comprehensive critique of economic imperialism. Through the German theorists Rosa Luxemburg and Rudolf Hilferding his arguments found their way into Lenin's famous pamphlet: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), which constitutes the official communist view. | 11 |
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| 1904–5 |
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| Max Weber (1864–1920), the eminent German economist-sociologist, published Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus, in which he concluded that the teachings of Luther and Calvin were among the mainsprings of the capitalist spirit. This thesis was further developed by Richard H. Tawney (1880–1962) in Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926). | 12 |
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