| |
| 1819 |
| |
| Arthur Schopenhauer's (1788–1860) Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung formulated a philosophy of pessimism, which, though generally ignored for a generation, became highly influential in the later 19th century. | 1 |
| |
| 1819–37 |
| |
| Jakob Grimm's (1785–1863) Deutsche Grammatik was a landmark in the development of modern philology. Jakob and his brother Wilhelm (1786–1859) collaborated in collecting folktales, myths, and laws, and in publishing a great dictionary of the German language (volume I, 1854). | 2 |
| |
| 1819 |
| |
| The Swiss historian Simonde de Sismondi (1773–1842) in his Nouveaux principes d'économie politique attacked the laissez-faire doctrines of the liberal school and was one of the first to call for state action on behalf of the helpless working classes. | 3 |
| |
| 1821–22 |
| |
| Der christliche Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche, one of the great theological treatises of the century, was published by Friederich Schleiermacher (1768–1834). The book emphasized the individual and emotional side of the Protestant religion and contended against dogmatism and rigidity. | 4 |
| |
| 1825 |
| |
| Augustin Thierry's (1795–1856) Histoire de la conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands provided a highly colored, romantic narrative history and at the same time pictured the ruling aristocracies as brutal conquerors and exploiters of “the people.” The French statesman François Guizot (1787–1874), in his brilliant lectures Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (1828), likewise stressed the importance of the middle class and the rise of representative institutions. | 5 |
| |
| 1825 |
| |
| James Mill's (1773–1836) Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind was a basic work of modern psychology. | 6 |
| |
| 1826 |
| |
| Beginning of the publication of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, the first of many scholarly collections of historical sources and a landmark in the development of national history. | 7 |
| |
| 1833 |
| |
| Establishment of a historical seminar by Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) as a center for advanced training in historical writing. Ranke's emphasis on criticism of sources and the utmost objectivity in presentation marked the beginning of modern professional historical scholarship. His Die römischen Päpste (1834–39) was only the first of various historical studies of the 16th and 17th centuries. | 8 |
| |
| 1834–40 |
| |
| La Démocratie en Amérique by Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–59), a most discerning analytical study of democracy, was based largely on personal observation and study. | 9 |
| |
| 1835–36 |
| |
| David Friedrich Strauss (1808–74) published Das Leben Jesu (two volumes), a critical examination of the sources that led him to question the historicity of Jesus. Strauss's book marked the appearance of the Young Hegelians, a group that interpreted the Hegelian philosophy in a radical and critical sense: Bruno Bauer (1809–82): Kritik der evangelischen Synoptiker (1841); Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72): Das Wesen des Christentums (1841); Max Stirner (1806–56): Der einzige und sein Eigentum (1845). | 10 |
| |
| 1841 |
| |
| Friedrich List (1789–1846) in his Nationales System der politischen Ökonomie stressed national welfare rather than individual gain and propounded a theory of relativity in economic policy: countries in the early stages of industrialization should protect their industries until free trade should become feasible. | 11 |
| |
| 1843–45 |
| |
| In a series of brilliant writings (Euten-Eller, 1843; Begrebet Angst, 1844; Stadier paa Livetsvej, 1845) the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard repudiated the Hegelian philosophy and preached a religion of acceptance and suffering on the part of the individual. His teaching presaged the philosophy of existentialism. (See Intellectual and Religious Trends) | 12 |
| |
| |
